Koranen i Birmingham
Der er grund til at antage er islam er en arabisk efterrationalisering. Muhammeds navn forekommer kun 4 gange i koranen. Første gang i 3. kapitel, hvor det på engelsk hedder “Muhammed is nothing but a messenger; messengers have passed away before him” (3:144). Men inden armene ryger i vejret hedder det senere “the Messiah, the son of Mary, is nothing but a messenger; messengers have passed away before him” (5:75). Dette lægger mening til at man har fundet en mønt i Palæstina fra 640?erne viser en figur, der holder et kors, men har navnet Muhammed.
Den tidligste kilde til Muhammeds liv stammer fra Ibn Ishaq og er skrevet i 750, mere end 120 år efter Muhammeds død. Men Ishaq arbejde eksisterer ikke og vi har kun Ibn Hishams redaktion som er kommet til 60-70 år senere. Historierne om Muhammeds liv og levned (hadith) er blevet samlet op af kæder af vidner der har fortalt hinanden historierne (isnader). Hadith er således samlinger på baggrund af isnader der anses for troværdige. Problemet er at ingen holder vand under moderne metoder.
Ifølge islamisk lære er det kalif Uthman, der i 653 samler koranen i et standardværk og får alle andre versioner destrueret. Men mønter fra Kalif Muawiya (661-680) viser Muawiya med et kors samt en halvmåne. Og Muawoyas efterfølger Kalif Yazid (680-683) er også præget på mønter med et kors. På Klippemoskeen i Jerusalem slås det fast at Muhammed har er tjener for Gud og hans profet og at Messias, Jesus søn af Maria, er Guds eneste profet.
Men nu har forskere fundet nogle meget gamle korantekster i den engelske by Birmingham, som de mener kan dateres tilbage til muslimernes grundlægger Muhammeds egen tid. Berlingske Tidende skriver
En gruppe britiske forskere har ved hjælp af nye teknologier dateret en koran til at være blandt verdens ældste, skriver CNN.
Koranen stammer fra mellem år 568 og år 645. Det blev slået fast i en Kulstof 14-undersøgelse foretaget af forskere fra Universitetet i Birmingham.
Det betyder, at de skrevne ord og bogen stammer fra den tid, hvor profeten Muhammed menes at have levet.
Man anslår generelt, at han levede mellem år 570 og år 645.
De to pergamenter, der udgør den såkaldt meget gamle koran, mener at indeholde vers 18 til 20, og det er skrevet med blæk i en gammel arabisk skrifttype ved navn hijazi.
Men selvom teksten er så gammel, minder indholdet meget om det, der står i de moderne udgaver af koranen, siger professor David Thomas.
»Det støtter vores opfattelse af, at den koran vi har nu minder ufattelig meget om koranen, som den blev skrevet i de første år af islams levetid,« siger han til CNN.
Det lægger håb til at koranen er en valid og fortællingen om Muhammed er ‘ægte’. Men Robert Spencer skriver på Jihad Watch, at “the more one looks at this curious story, the less there is to see”.
The article is riddled with academic and journalistic sloppiness. We’re told that the radiocarbon dating shows, “with a probability of more than 95%, the parchment was from between 568 and 645.” Very well, but does the ink date to that time as well? We are not told. Parchment was often reused in the ancient world, with the earlier text erased and written over, and so if a parchment dates from 645, that doesn’t necessarily mean that the text does.
However, it is impossible to discover any more details from this shoddy BBC presentation. The best photo of this manuscript that the BBC provides shows clear traces of another text underneath the main text. It is not clear from the photo whether that is the text from the other side bleeding through on the photograph, or even if there is any text on the other side; nor does the BBC tell us whether or not the parchment shows signs of having been a palimpsest — that is, a parchment that was used more than once for different texts. There is also some red ink in the top lines of the manuscript in the photo but not in the succeeding lines. Has the red ink faded from the other sections, or is it itself evidence of the ink fading? Or is it a later hand filling in areas that had faded away (and possibly altering the text)? The BBC doesn’t tell us, yet this is an extremely salient point. Another recently discovered and much-touted fragment of the Qur’an, now in Germany and dated from between 649 and 675, shows clear signs of alteration, raising the possibility that the Qur’anic text was altered over time. If this is a possibility also for the University of Birmingham manuscript, the BBC should tell us so. But it doesn’t.
What’s more, if the text along with the parchment really dates from between 568 and 645, it may not be a fragment of the Qur’an at all. The Qur’an, according to Islamic tradition, was compiled in its definitive form in the year 653 by the caliph Uthman, who ordered all variant texts burned and the canonical version distributed to all the provinces within his domains. As I show in my book Did Muhammad Exist?, however, there are numerous reasons to doubt this story. The principal one is that if the entire Islamic world had copies of the Qur’an by the mid 650’s, why is it that not until the latter part of the seventh and early part of the eighth century do mentions of the Qur’an begin to appear? The Dome of the Rock inscriptions date from 691; they are made up of many Qur’an verses, but out of their Qur’anic order and some with notable changes in wording. Who would have dared to change the words of Allah? And the first clear reference to the Qur’an as such occurred around the year 710—eighty years after the book was supposedly completed and sixty years after it was supposedly collected and distributed. During a debate with an Arab noble, a Christian monk of the monastery of Beth Hale (of which there were two, one in northern Iraq and the other in Arabia; it is not known in which one this monk lived) cited the Qur’an by name. The monk wrote, “I think that for you, too, not all your laws and commandments are in the Qur’an which Muhammad taught you; rather there are some which he taught you from the Qur’an, and some are in surat albaqrah and in gygy and in twrh.”
(…)
So if this is a fragment of the Qur’an as it now stands (and what portion of the Qur’an is it, anyway? Neither the BBC nor its quoted academics tell us), and yet it could date from as far back as 568, two years before Muhammad is supposed to have been born, it might not be a fragment of the Qur’an at all. It could instead be a portion of some source that later became part of the Qur’an, as did Surat al-Baqara.
Professor David Thomas, also without telling us what exact portions of the Qur’an this manuscript contains, raises even more questions when he says: “These portions must have been in a form that is very close to the form of the Koran read today, supporting the view that the text has undergone little or no alteration and that it can be dated to a point very close to the time it was believed to be revealed.” This is a very strange statement. The BBC, and apparently the University of Birmingham, are advertising this as an ancient fragment of the Qur’an. Presumably when Thomas says that “these portions must have been in a form that is very close to the form of the Koran read today,” he means that the larger whole of which they once formed a part was “very close” to the Qur’an. But how close is “very close”? Mainstream Muslims maintain that the Qur’anic text has undergone no alteration at all since it was first “revealed.”
Man får let følelsen, som også Spencer indikerer, at der blandt koran- og islamforskere eksisterer en, skal vi sige pro-islamisk dagsorden. At man ønsker at folk skal få en forståelse af at islams kilder er mere faste end virkeligheden tilsiger. Bent Jensen har tidligere i Jyllands-Posten undret sig over koran- og islamforskernes besynderlige forhold til deres forskningsfelt
Koranen er angiveligt Guds rene og fejlfri lære, formidlet som nævnt via englen Gabriel til Muhammed i begyndelsen af 600-tallet. Men hvorfor indeholder bogen da så mange sproglige og historiske fejl, og hvorfor er dele af teksten uforståelig? Og hvad skal moderne muslimer i det 21. århundrede stille op med de mange udsagn om drab på vantro, kvinders henvisning til en lavere samfundskategori, slavehold og andre barbariske ting? Altså hvis man ikke er eller ønsker at blive hellig kriger.
Ifølge Pressburg tyder intet på, at Muhammed har eksisteret. Han er en litterær eller mytisk konstruktion. Ja, navnet Muhammed fandtes slet ikke, da Muhammed levede. ”Muhammed” var oprindeligt ikke et navn, men en titel, der betød ”den udvalgte” eller ”lovpriste”. Og denne udvalgte og lovpriste var – hold på hat og briller – Jesus Kristus. Titlen findes på mønter og i inskriptioner, som er forsynet med et kors og fremstillet af kristne arabiske herskere. Pressburg bygger på Christoph Luxenbergs banebrydende filologiske studier. Ifølge Luxenberg (også et pseudonym) er det simpelthen grammatisk umuligt, at Muhammed var et navn. Arabisk har ligesom hebraisk kun konsonanter, og det i sig selv har givet anledning til store problemer med at forstå mange passager i Koranen. Det er Luxenbergs store fortjeneste at have forklaret flere af disse dunkle eller uforståelige passager. Luxenberg mener, at Koranens kernestykke er en assyrisk kristen tekst, skrevet med arabisk skrift, men på aramæisk, som i sin tid var et udbredt kultursprog i Mellemøsten. Den MHMD (MuHaMeD), der omtales, betyder altså Guds lovpriste udsending, Jesus Kristus. Først flere hundrede år efter Muhammeds angivelige eksistens blev de fire konsonanter misforstået og gjort til navnet Muhammed.
Bogen har et særligt budskab til de hellige muslimske krigere, som tror, at de kommer i Paradis og dér bliver forsynet med 72 evigt unge, barmfagre jomfruer. Der er tale om en alvorlig misforståelse på grund af en fejllæsning; ”martyrerne” får i virkeligheden kun stillet vindruer og frugtsaft i udsigt. De unge drenge, som også ifølge traditionen skulle stå til rådighed for de himmelfarne, viser sig at være kølige frugter. Jomfruerne og drengene er til dels et resultat af oversætternes egen fantasi og forhåbninger.
Pressburg har som motto og ledestjerne for sin bog videnskabsteoretikeren Karl Poppers maksime: »Vi kan ikke bevise sandheden. Men vi kan bevise usandheden og dermed tilnærme os sandheden.« Alle forsøg på at bevise personen Muhammeds eksistens har været forgæves. Der findes ikke et eneste stik- og håndfast vidnesbyrd, der bekræfter den, ikke et eneste spor efter denne mand. Den såkaldte Klippemoské i Jerusalem fra slutningen af 600-tallet er ifølge muslimske myter bygget over det sted, hvor Muhammed red til himmels på en hest. Men der er i virkeligheden tale om en kristen helligdom – det viser hele dens ottekantede syrisk-byzantinske arkitektur, men også den 240 meter lange indskrift, der pryder dens indre.
Klippehelligdommen blev bygget af den kristne arabiske hersker Abd al-Malik på det sted, hvor den israelske kong Salomons tempel havde stået, og hvor Kristus forventedes at ville komme igen. Indskriften udtrykker derfor en kristen trosbekendelse. Først senere blev den kristne kirke omdannet til en muslimsk helligdom – og i allernyeste tid gjort til en moské.
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Godt skrevet!
Væsentligt at få opdagelsen sat ind i gængs videnskabelig kontekst, hvilket medierne ikke magter (ikke tør). Og der kommer næppe nærmere data fra medierne, da det er for farligt.
Jeg bider umiddelbart mærke i, om teksten kan betragtes som forarbejder til det, der hedder Surat al-Baqara?
Her kan man tilføje at bortset fra en masse vås forekommer lige den tilsvarende koran-tekst at dreje sig om noget med at få jøderne (Israels børn) til at tilbede fællesguden, der i koranen hedder Allah. Det kan sagtens været skrevet af kristne mange år før, men med et andet navn til fællesguden, før det blev redigeret til til den Koran, vi kender i dag.
Da jøderne blev bortvist fra Israel 500 år før (efter år 132 e.Kr) er denne koran-tekst en mærkelig optagethed af nogle små hjemløse jødiske grupperinger, der var spredt for alle vinde og uden politsk magt i øvrigt. Det ville da rage en arabisk landevejsrøver en skid, medmindre teksten i virkeligheden har jødisk-kristent ophav og i virkeligheden stammer tilbage fra debatten mellem jøder og kristne om den rette tro på Gud.
Men ellers fatter jeg ikke meget af tekstens våseri. Og endnu mindre dets væsentlighed i vore dage.
Tak for ordene Traveler, meget oplysende.
[...] fik ret i sin antagelse, Koranen i Birmingham, er ikke gode nyheder for islam. Midt på sommeren havde man i gamle arkiver i Birmingham i England [...]
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